- It took him many years to do so
- He memorized 14,800 lines
- But, wife noted, "He can't find his glasses, he can't find his keys."
- I believe Powelson was attempting to demonstrate that Homer did write The Iliad and The Odyssey from an older oral tradition.
- He is a memorist who can remember an extraordinary amount of items for avery long time including Euler's constant to the first 30 digits
- Euler's constant (the first 50): 0.57721566490153286060651209008240243104215933593992...
- People like Powelson and Mahadevan demonstrate the upper limits of memory.
- books,
- tables of content (ToCs),
- indexes,
- vaults,
- purses,
- more
- Attention
- Human attention is limited because of our brain cannot attend to everything at the same time
- Consequently, we have selective attention
- Examples:
- Why do I know where 1950s pick up trucks are parked all over south Arkansas?
- Because I notice them due to my selective interest.
- I have owned five such trucks since 1978. (None now, don't want any more!)
- Here''s one in Texarkana that I passed up, too expensive!
- That is a 1954 or 1955 Chevrolet First Series model. Look at the grill and the one-piece windshield.
- When is the next lady's clothing sale at Dillards?
- I have no idea, but I'm sure my wife knows.
- Why do I know where 1950s pick up trucks are parked all over south Arkansas?
- Levels of processing
- Memory is better with deep processing (e.g., focus on meaning)
- Other levels include shallow (focus on elements) and intermediate
- Craik and Lockheart's Levels of Processing
- Video Levels of Processing
- Example:
- Shallow: count the "e's" in a list of words
- Deep: Look at same list and tell me if this is a pleasant or unpleasant word
- Deep leads to better recall
- Memory is better with deep processing (e.g., focus on meaning)
- Elaboration
- Elaboration is a form of encoding.
- Imagine I cannot recall SAU's previous president, Dr. Berry's name, but I know much about him:
- he was president,
- lived in that big house across from Admin Building,
- he's bald,
- he's shorter than me,
- he drove a big, white Ford truck.
- BINGO! his name now comes to me because of elaboration
- Imagine I cannot recall SAU's previous president, Dr. Berry's name, but I know much about him:
- (FYI, now he's president of Henderson State University.)
- Elaboration is a form of encoding.
- The Process of Memory
- Memory is a construct, meaning that it is abstract not concrete. It cannot be purchased, weighed, or real even.
- Instead, it must be described as a process. Psychologists use three steps to describe that process:
encoding, storage, and retrieval. - Memory and forgetting are constructs, or things that we have
constructed.
- We have not constructed them physically; rather, we have
done so conceptually.
- So, no one has ever seen, heard, or felt memory
or forgetting.
- They have no physical reality; rather we assume they exist from their properties.
- So, no one has ever seen, heard, or felt memory
or forgetting.
- It is easier to imagine memory and forgetting as processes rather than as things.
- We have not constructed them physically; rather, we have
done so conceptually.
- Psychologists use the steps: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
- We measure memory in the process of retrieving items from storage.
- We know little still about the physiological mechanisms of memory or the parts of the brain involved. (But see below.)
- Recall is when we attempt to
retrieve items from memory with a minimum of retrieval cues.
- For example, I might ask you to list the presidents of the United States. Most students will have trouble recalling more than half of the presidents.
- Another example would be a question from earlier in this
course like, "Who is generally considered to be the first
psychologist?"
- Or, a more difficult question would be, "Who was his most famous student?"
- Free recall is when ret retrieval cues are minimal, as above.
- Cued recall is when hints, or additional retrieval
cues are given.
- For example, the first psychologist's name starts with a "W."
- Generally, we recall fewer items than we recognize.
- Recognition is when we are asked to remember whether or not a certain item is the correct one.
- For example, was Rutherford B. Hayes a president? (He was; was he on your list above?)
- How about Chester Allen Garfield?
- No, Chester Allen Arthur was and so was Garfield, but his first and middle names were different.)
- We recognize more
than we recall because the tasks are different.
- By the way, essay tests are more like recall and multiple choice tests are more like recognition.
- I like to give tests with both kinds of items because then I learn more about what students have learned.
- Finally, relearning is a task that involves learning an item,
forgetting it, and then learning that same item again.
- Relearning is not used much to study learning because people do not completely forget items.
- Hopefully, you will not have to relearn this course next semester. (In other words, pass it the first time around.)
- Ebbinghaus used relearning in his pioneering studies of memory.
- Those steps (encoding, storage, and retrieval) comprise the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory.
- The model contains the three steps above plus three more stages:
- sensory memory (lasts a few seconds)
- short term memory (lasts a few minutes)
- long term memory (lasts from hours to a lifetime)
- The model contains the three steps above plus three more stages:
- Memory consists of retrieving items from storage via three methods:
- recall (Who was the first psychologist?)
- Should remind you of an essay test
- recognition (Was the first psychologist: Wundt, James, Titchener, Hall?)
- Should reming you of a multiple choice test
- relearning (Time how long it takes you to learn that Wundt was the first, now forget that and learn it again. The time it takes to learn it the second time should be less.)
- Should remind you of the greater ease of learning the same thing again.
- I tell General Psychology students the course will be easier the second time they take it because of relearning. (Meaning they failed the course once already.)
- BTW, each method yields its own type of results, so any statement about memory should state the method used. (i.e., you might not RECALL that Wundt was the first psychologist, but you might RECOGNIZE his name from a list.
- recall (Who was the first psychologist?)
- Process (graphic)
- The graphic shows ordinary words the public might use for the process of memory:
- Learning
- Retention
- Remembering
- It then shows the words psychologists use:
- Encoding
- Storage
- Retrieval
- It also defines the place where psychologists measure memory: in between storage and retrieval.
- NOTE: if an item is not encoded, it cannot be stored, and, thus, cannot be retrieved.
- You cannot get a biological memory upgrade! :-)
- Most popular memory courses improve encoding techniques (see Mnemonics below)
- The graphic shows ordinary words the public might use for the process of memory:
- Recall Ebbinghaus's research from chapter 1.
- The interesting issue about the memory curve is that for most memories the curve is very consistent
- Schacter (2001, p. 143) listed topics that emanated from other laboratories based upon Ebbinghaus’s pioneering work:
- repetition effects,
- the curve of forgetting,
- stimulus attributes
- presentation modality,
- individual differences,
- interference
- inhibition,
- methods of learning,
- recognition and affect.
- That this list sounds modern is testament to Ebbinghaus’s breakthrough.
- Schacter (2001, p. 143) listed topics that emanated from other laboratories based upon Ebbinghaus’s pioneering work:
- 1. Remembering and Knowing
- Permanent and Temporary Memories
- Memory (storage) and Knowing (retrieval) are different
- 2. Forgetting
- Other side of memory
- Forgetting is good-think of your hard drive
- Hard drives eventually get full
- While your brain has much, much more capacity than most hard drives, forgetting helps keep space clear for new memories
- lists,
- lyrics,
- any kind of ordered data
- Primacy refers to the phenomenon that the first item on a list is remembered better
- Recency refers to the phenomenon that the last item on a list is remembered better
- The serial position effect refers to the phenomenon that items in the middle of lists are harder to remember
- serial position effect
- Notice there are fewer errors at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of the 12 item list
- Graphic (longer list and serial position effect)
- Notice that there are many equivalent items recalled on the 32 item list
- Those errors nearly follow a limit (e.g., an asymptote)
- serial position effect
- Notice the difference in the serial position effect for shorter and longer lists
- If you are memorizing a list or a song with several stanzas, the items in the middle of each are harder to remember
- I had to memorize the song below for play My Fair Lady
- It took me many hours to remember the middle lyrics. Here is a video (not on test)
- I even sang it while driving after listening to a cassette of the song.
- Yes, I had to dance while singing.
- Thanks to the curve of forgetting I could not sing it today :-(
-
… A few more hours, that's all the time I got A few more hours before I tie the knot There'll be drinks and girls all over the town And I gotta track 'em down in just a few more hours… I'm gettin' married in the morning Ding, dong, the bells are gonna chime Pull out the stopper, we'll have a whopper But get me to the church on time… I got to get there in the morning Spruced up and lookin' in my prime Girls come and kiss me, say that you'll miss me But get me to the church on time… If I am dancing roll up the floor If I am whistling right out the door… I got to get there in the morning Ding, ding, dong, they're gonna chime Kick up a rumpus, don't lose your compass Get me to the church, get me to the church Pete's sake, get me to the church on time… If I'm flyin' then shoot me down If I'm wooin' get the girl right out of town… I got to get there in the morning Ding, ding, dong, they're gonna chime Punch me and jail me, stamp me and mail me But get me to the church, get me to the church Pete's sakes, get me to the church on time On time, on time, on time
- PAG-Horse,
- MOX-Tuba,
- BEP-Girl
- ...
- Here the nonsense syllable "PAG" is the cue for the reponse "Horse"
- When tested, respondents only see the cue and must give the response
- Cues may be given in any order
- With this method there is not serial position effect
- Sensory Memory
- A.K.A. the sensory register
- Iconic (visual)
- The eyes gather vast amounts of visual data but only a little goes deeper into the brain
- Partial recall experiments (Sperling)
- Sperling would briefly flash a stimulus similar to the one below
- A.K.A. the sensory register
- Then, he would show a stimulus such as:
- In the case above, respondents would respond "P"
- But respondents could remember only if two seconds or less had elapsed
- With 9 letters correct performance was nearly 100%
- Sperling's experiments demonstrate how the visual sensory register works
- Echoic (auditory sensory register)
- The ears gather vast amounts of auditory data but the auditory sensory register holds it for nearly 30 seconds
- Here's an example why:
- "A funny thing happened to me on the way to work this morning, but first let me remind you we are nearly at midterm, it seemed warmer than usual this morning too, now let me tell you about that funny incident..."
- Notice that the brain needs to hold auditory information longer. (BTW, nothing funny happened this morning :-)
- I imagine the words I'm listening to as akin to a railroad train, each car being another word.
- Short-Term (STM or Working) Memory
- STM lasts about 30 seconds
- But rehearsal can maintain STM longer
- Example
- I break down on the highway and need to call a tow truck
- I find the number, call it, and it's busy
- When I try to remember it two minutes later, I cannot.
- But, had I repeated the number to myself during the interim I could have dialed it.
- That is a REHEARSAL method
- STM has Limited Capacity-
- George Miller found that STM can contain 7 items plus or minus 2
- Baddeley's Model of Working Memory (an alternative view of STM)
- Central Executive System
- Phonological Loop
- Visual-Spatial Sketch Pad
- Video: Working Memory
- Chunks
- Words are chunks and so are sentences
- So, STM can include 7 plus or minus two chunks
- Musical phrases, too, can be thought of as chunks
- Novice musicians play every note
- Advanced musicians see and play music as familiar groups of notes (e.g., phrases)
- Chunking Game
- Hard to do online: In class I would ask you to guess what word I was thinking, then write the correct letters:
- argumenta___ (could be argumentation, argumentative...)
- Notice that Google and other apps attempt to predict ahead of what you are typing
- So does ChatGPT
- I'd also cheat:
- xykpro... (no such word in English)
- That's why your password should not be a word. See why?
- Only around 300,000 words in English, but MANY more combinations of letters, numbers, and symbols
- Harder for someone to hack into your account that way
- Also works for sentences:
- You can lead...
- That dog won't...
- A stitch...
- Can you finish the chunks above?
- All of these are aphorisms or common sayings
- We remember them whole, as chunks
- See HERE for more such aphorisms
- Hard to do online: In class I would ask you to guess what word I was thinking, then write the correct letters:
- Words are chunks and so are sentences
- STM lasts about 30 seconds
- Long-Term Memory-High Road and Low Road to memory
- Long-Term Memory is Highly Stable
- Memory for odors and visual information
- Notice:
- Humans recall pictures well and odors too, but at a lower, more stable level
- Memory for odors and visual information
- Long-Term Memory is Generative-Memory is not a tape recording of the past
- Birdhouse Builder
- You see me and my left thumb is wrapped in a thick bandage.
- You ask me what happened and I say I was buiding a birdhouse.
- You infer that I hit my thumb with a hammer and that I'm righthanded.
- You might also infer I'm not much of a carpenter :-)
- Note: I never mentioned the word "hammer"
- Bransford & Johnson (1972)
- The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange
items into different groups. Of course, one pile may be
sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you
have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is
the next step; otherwise, you are pretty much set. It is
important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too
few things at once than too many. In the short run this may
not seem important but complications can easily arise. A
mistake can be expensive as well. At first, the whole
procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will
become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee
any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future,
but then, one never can tell. After the procedure is completed
one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then
they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they
will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have
to be repeated. However, that is part of life.- Can you figure this out?
- What if I had told you before I started that this is a story about laundry.
- Will you remember it more now?
- The participants in their study certainly did. (See p. 286)
- The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange
- Birdhouse Builder
- Some Things are More Easily Remembered
- Flashbulb memories (Challenger and 9/11 South Tower Collapse)
- Video: Flashbulb memories
- Poetry
- Gunga Din (Kipling)
- Rhyme and meter help recall
- FYI, I recited this poem in my public speaking class in High School, I cannot recall it in entirety, but I can recall much of it from memory now.
- Gunga Din (Kipling)
- Prose
- Not as easily recalled as poetry
- Nonsense Syllables
- Hard to recall
- Random Numbers
- Hard to recall
- Meaning makes remembering easier
- Long-Term Memory is Highly Stable
- Short-Term and Long-Term Memory Compared
- Think of memory like a series of filters.
- Everything goes into sensory memory, some items go into STM,
fewer items go into LTM
- Explicit (Declarative) and Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory
- Declarative--"Know that"
- express in words-describe how to ride a bicycle
- write a Users Manual for how to ride a bicycle
- What are the odds that someone who has never ridden a bicycle would do so successfully just by reading the Users Manual?
- Nondeclarative--"Know how"
- must actually do-ride a bicycle (and fall a few times)
- We will discuss nondeclarative memory in chapter 8
- Preview: once you learn to ride a bicycle you will likely never forget how
- Declarative--"Know that"
- Two Kinds of Declarative Memory
- Semantic Memory-knowledge
- (what is the capital of Burkina-Faso?)
- Usually, you have no idea when you first learned a semantic memory.
- Example: When did you learn that Paris was the capital of France?
- But nearly all semantic memories were once episodic memories
- Usually, you have no idea when you first learned a semantic memory.
- (what is the capital of Burkina-Faso?)
- Episodic Memory-personal memories
(the "episodes" of your life)- Example of episodic memory: When I was five we were crossing the Delaware River, a bee flew in the open window, landed on my thigh, and stung me.
- Do you remember that?
- Of course not, it happened to me, not you.
- Episodic memories are personal and time-tagged (HS graduation, Weddings, Funerals)
- Example of episodic memory: When I was five we were crossing the Delaware River, a bee flew in the open window, landed on my thigh, and stung me.
- Semantic Memory-knowledge
- Brain Injury can cause amnesia (organic)
- Types of amnesia
- organic
- retrograde
- anterograde
- dissociative
- Types of amnesia
- Fading (Decay)Theory-not a model for memory
- I call this the banana theory
- First it's green, then yellow, then spotted, then black, then gone.
- But, forgetting does not work that way.
- I call this the banana theory
- Distortion Theory-Loftus and eyewitness memory
- Hugo Münsterberg in the early years of the 20th Century was one of the first psychologists to examine the validity of eyewitness testimony.
- But little attention was paid to his work and law enforcement agencies continued to believe in the high value of eyewitness testimony in criminal procedings.
- In the 1970s Elizabeth Loftus (here she discusses her research in a TED talk) was much more successful at conveying to the world the problems in taking eyewitness accounts at face value.
- Loftus and Palmer's research demonstrated that eyewitnesses changed their testimony and became surer of it under repeated questioning.
- Her research, unlike that of Münsterberg, has had traction in law enforcement circles.
- In one study, college students were asked to watch a car accident.
- Later, the experimental manipulation were the words "smashed" for one group, and "contacted" for the other group.
- Both groups saw the same picture.
- But, the group who was asked using the word "smashed" estimated the speed of the cars as being higher than the group asked using the word "contacted." See picture below.
- Hugo Münsterberg in the early years of the 20th Century was one of the first psychologists to examine the validity of eyewitness testimony.
- Repression Theory-Limited, rare instances
- Psychoanalytic concept, mostly
- Interference
Theory
- For many years, interference theory was the most popular theory of memory and forgetting. Today, most psychologists agree that it exists as described, but that it works better in laboratory situations than in the real world.
- Proactive
interference (graphic)
- Look at the graphic above. E stands for experimental group, C stands for control group
- The experimental group was given a memory task (A-B) followed by a related task (A-C) and then asked to remember A-C the second task. The control group on learned the A-C task and both were tested on the A-C task. The results were that the experimental group did mor e poorly on the memory task than the control group. The interference interpretation is that the A-B taskt interfered proactively (meaning that the A-B task prior to the A-C task made it harder for the experimental group to learn the A-C task (proactive interference is past affects future)
- Retroactive
interference (graphic)
- Look at the graphic above. The terminology is the same. But this time both groups are made to learn the A-B task first. The experimental group then is made to learn a second task, A-C, but the control group is not. This time the test is over the A-B task and once again the control group does better on the memory task than the experimental group. This type of interference is called retroactive because the A-C task caused the experimental group to forget more of the A-B task. (retroactive interference is future affects the past)
- Scripts
- We learn scripts all of the time
- Think of what you do at a restaurant
- Decide which one to go to, Enter, Be Seated, Get Menu, Order, Wait, Eat, Pay, Leave. That script is learned and applies to nearly any restaurant
- Here's another example: CLASSROOM
- What do you think of here? Desks, Teachers, Students, Lights, Windows, Tests, etc.
- Do you think of elephants? No, not likely. Elephants do not fit the CLASSROOM scripts
- Suppose I asked you, "Why did the student go to the front of the classroom?"
- You might say:
- To see the teacher
- To write on the board
- To throw something away
- But, you would not say, "To feed the elephant."
- Elephants are not in the script of a classroom.
- Retrieval Failure
- Retrieval failure theories see forgetting as the inability to find and recover a memory in storage, Hence the title of retrieval failure.
- Opposed to this are theories of true forgetting.
- Meaning a particular memory might be, in fact, completely lost and no amount of searching could recover it.
- (For example, imagine you are looking at my garage and you want to borrow my weed whacker, but you can't find it.
- Unless, you take every last item out of the garage you will not know if it was really there or not.
- (For example, imagine you are looking at my garage and you want to borrow my weed whacker, but you can't find it.
- Meaning a particular memory might be, in fact, completely lost and no amount of searching could recover it.
- Under retrieval failure you might say, "I could not find it."
- But under true forgetting (if the weed whacker was no longer in my garage) you might say "I don't know if he ever had a weed whacker."
- As stated above, most memory improvement strategies involve improving encoding.
- Mnemonic devices are one common way to improve encoding.
- Most such devices involve chunking.
- Mnemonic devices are one common way to improve encoding.
- Good examples of chunking include words (e.g., collections or chunks of letters), sentences (On old olympus' towering tops a Finn and German viewed some hops.)
- That sentence serves as a memory aid for the 12 pairs of cranial nerves in order. olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, auditory, glossopharyngeal, vagus, sensory (accessory), and hypoglossal.
- YOU DO NOT HAVE TO KNOW THE CRANIAL NERVES unless you plan to go to Med School:-)
- Types of mnemonics
- Acrostics: sentences such as "Every good boy does fine."
- That sentence encodes the notes on the lines of the musical treble clef : EGBDF from bottom to top.
- Acronyms: words that encode items such as HOMES for the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior.
- (YOU DON'T NEED TO KNOW THE NAMES OF THE LAKES)
- FACE a word that encodes the spaces on the musical treble clef from bottom to top.
- More complicated types
- Loci: mentally put items to be remembered in a familiar location such as your house. Imagine a grocery list: steak, milk, cookies, eggs, and flour. You might remember them as follows:
- Living room--cookies--imagine your LR furniture made out of Girl Scout cookie boxes
- Bathroom--milk--imagine milk coming out of your shower
- Kitchen--flour--imagine curtains made from old flour sacks
- Bed room--steak--imagine sleeping on a large ribeye bed
- Dining room--eggs--imagine having to walk on eggshells
- Link: mentally put all of the list items into one concept (this technique is more prone to dropping items from memory)
- I like to imagine a "grocery dog" where:
- its body is a steak
- its legs are four milk cartons
- its head is a bag of flour
- its ears are two eggs
- its tail is a cookie
- Can you picture it?
- I like to imagine a "grocery dog" where:
- Peg Words
- This is a more complicated system that involves memorizing a list of paired words:
- one-bun
- two-shoe
- three-tree
- four-door
- five-hive
- six-sticks
- seven-heaven
- eight-gate
- etc
- Then associations are made with each pair, for example say you want to remember your grocery list above:
- steak in a bun
- milk in a shoe
- cookies hanging from a tree
- eggs splattered on a door
- flour covering a bee hive
- When mastered this technique is highly effective
- One study trained the elderly to use these techniques effectively
- This is a more complicated system that involves memorizing a list of paired words:
- Loci: mentally put items to be remembered in a familiar location such as your house. Imagine a grocery list: steak, milk, cookies, eggs, and flour. You might remember them as follows:
- Acrostics: sentences such as "Every good boy does fine."
- But, after three years most quit using the method.
Lucy Anschutz, Cameron J. Camp, Robert P. Markley & Jack J. Kramer (1985) Maintenance and generalization of mnemonics for grocery shopping by older adults, Experimental Aging Research, 11, 157-160, DOI: 10.1080/03610738508259180
- Avoiding encoding
- Another strategy is to avoid encoding altogether, in other words:
- Keep a list on paper or on your smartphone
- Be disciplined enough to do so (meaning record on your phone or write down in a notebook, plus have those handy.)
- FYI, I always carry a pen and a notebook, not to mention a phone.
- My shopping list is on my phone.
- Retrieval Cues
- Recall: "Wbo was the first psychologist?" (Do you remember?)
- Recognition: "Was the first American psychologist: Dewey, Titchener, James, or Cattell? (Did you pick him out?)
- Encoding Specificity
- Example: you speak to your favorite Walmart cashier all of the time but you fail to recognize her in class. Why?
- Context-dependent Memory
- Your retrieval is better when you are in the same context that you first encoded the memory.
- Example: I might remember my golf score on the 13th hole better when I'm actually on the golf course.
- Special Cases of Retrieval
- False memories (see bottom of this page)
- Autobiographical Memories
- What is your oldest memory? How old were you?
- Infantile amnesia is common. See: LINK (it's slow sometimes, sorry)
- Text from that site:
- As a parent, I have informally tested my children from time to time about their memories.
- Once, I asked my oldest if he remembered visiting the Smithsonian's Natural History Museum a year after his last visit.
- He was about five years old at the time and he did not remember.
- I probed, and asked if he remembered what animal was just inside the main doors in the museum's rotunda.
- He still did not remember. Here is what he did not remember, the giant elephant in the rotunda:
- Text from that site:
- Three Levels of Autobiographical Memories (Conway & Rubin, 1993)
Level Label Description 1 Life time periods Long segments of time (years) 2 General events Extended Composite Episodes (days to months) 3 Event specific knowledge Individual episodes (seconds to hours)
- Level 1: I lived in Latin America for 13 years (Colombia, Argentina, Cuba, and Chile)
- Level 2: Over the last nine years SAU has sent me to Cuba 6 times to establish and maintain an exchange program
- Level 3: I broke the top joint of my middle finger in football practice one day in 1966 (and it's still bent!)
- The cognitive side:
- Loftus and others have demonstrated that false memories can be implanted in some people.
- Loftus' first example was her "Lost in the mall" study where one of her students, with assistance from his parents, was able to convince his younger brother that when he was much younger he was lost in a nearby mall and a kindly grey haired man wearing a plaid shirt found him and kept him safe until his parents reclaimed him.
- Unfortunately, none of that every happened.
- The younger brother had to be convinced afterwards that the whole story was a fabrication.
- The clinical side:
- Freud started the ball rolling with his idea that trauma could lead to repressed memories.
- In the 1990s many clinicians urged their patients to search their pasts of evidence of traumatic episodes.
- One problem is how to tell if patients are reporting true memories or making up false ones
- This has been labelled the period of "Memory Wars" and it is still controversial today.
- All states in the USA now have laws that enable conviction based on recovered memories.
- Loftus spends much of her time testifying as an expert witness against false recovered memories.
- But recent surveys show that majorities of clinical practitioners and laypersons (e.g., people on the street) still believe in the reality of recovered memories.
- Motivated forgetting is often associated with traumatic episodes in life
- Most scientific psychologists are extremely skeptical about repressed memories.
- See this article if you want more information about this current controversy in psychology.
- Means memory about memory
- Most likely you knew that you did not know the capital of Burkina Faso.
- It's Ouagadougou, fyi.
- FOK-feeling of knowing (p. 299)
- Can you predict if you know an answer
- JOL-judgment of learning (p. 299)
- Have you learned what you set out to learn?
- Most likely you knew that you did not know the capital of Burkina Faso.
