Chapter 9

Language, Education, and Work

Modified: 2025-07-03 11:03 AM CDST

I. The System of Language (p. 272)

• A. Definition of Language
  • 1. Language—communication system of limited sounds, letters, gestures, combined in agreed upon rules; produces infinite number of messages
  • 2. Linguists have not yet fully defined the rules to any language.
  • 3. Cannot account for grammar acquisition
  • B. Basic Components
  • 1. Key aspects of language to be mastered
  • 2. Phoneme—basic units of sounds from any given language
  • 3. English /b/ as in bit
  • 4. More phonemes than letters as some letters can be pronounced in different ways
  • 5. Each language defines which sounds can be combined (e.g., in English “br” combination is okay but “bm” is not).
  • 6. Morphemes—basic units of meaning that exist in a word
  • 7. Some words have one morpheme (e.g., view).
  • 8. Adding a different morpheme (e.g., pre) can result in a word consisting of two morphemes (e.g., preview).
  • 9. Morphemes are not syllables.
  • 10.Syntax—systematic rules for formation of sentences
  • 11.Order of words can lead to different meaning (e.g., Fang bit Fred versus Fred bit Fang).
  • 12.Semantics—meaning of words, symbols, or sentences

"Time flies like an arrow." Think of "time" as a verb. Think of timing houseflies like you would time an arrow. :-)
What about: "Time flies like a banana." What part of speech is the word "time" now?

• Answers:
  • Time flies like an arrow. Time is a noun.
  • Time flies like an arrow. Time is verb.
  • Time flies like a banana. Time is an adjective
• 13.Pragmatics—rules for specifying how language is appropriately used in different social context
• 14.Prosody—how sounds are produced
• 15.“Melody” of speech including pitch, intonation, or accentuation of certain syllables
• 16.Tone makes a statement sarcastic.
• C. Biology
  • 1. Neurobiology of language
  • 2. Language is often largely a product of left hemispheric activity in Broca’s area (associated with speech production) and Wernicke’s area (associated with comprehension of language).
  • 3. Based on new brain imaging techniques (functional magnetic resonance imaging [fMRI] and event-related potentials [ERPs]), can craft more precise picture of neural activity of language
  • 4. Those successful at learning new words show more connectivity between left and right supramarginal gyrus in the parietal lobe.
  • 5. fMRIs show more balance of left and right hemisphere activity during language for women, but more left than right for men.
  • 6. Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas connected by fibers
  • 7. Incoming language first comprehended in Wernicke’s area and sent to Broca’s area via “arcuate fasciculus” fibers
  • 8. Damage of arcuate fasciculus fibers can lead to aphasia—language disorder in which person might hear or understand linguistic input but be unable to vocally repeat the information
  • 9. Neurons in Broca’s area are active during speech production and when a person sees or hears someone speaking.
  • 10.It appears that both heredity and environmental factors combine to impact language development.
• D. Theories: Nature and Nurture
  • 1. Nature: Innate Predispositions
  • 2. Chomsky’s theory proposed that humans have a unique genetic capacity to learn language with universal grammar—system of common rules and properties for learning any of the world’s languages (e.g., most languages have basic word order of subject-verb-object or subject-object-verb)
  • 3. Most languages are based on grammar that starts with a subject.
  • 4. Language acquisition device (LAD)—area of the brain assisting in acquisition of universal features of language; tailors brain to process specific language spoken in the child’s environment
  • 5. Evidence supporting nativist perspective
  • 6. “Learnability factor”—children acquire an incredibly complex communication system rapidly and without formal training
  • 7. Similar stages of linguistic progression occurring at similar ages
  • 8. Similar pattern of development despite significant cultural differences in pattern of verbal interaction between adults and children
  • 9. Children learn native language with ease but struggle later to learn a second language (may be a critical period for language acquisition).
  • 10.In deaf children, mastery of American Sign Language morphology, syntax, and semantics better in children exposed to ASL in infancy or young childhood
  • 11.Similar critical period found in second-language learning (e.g., native Korean speakers learning English)
  • 12.Learning a language earlier better (e.g., puberty worse outcome than in young childhood, middle-age outcome worse than in young adulthood)
  • 13.Is there a critical period in language acquisition?
  • 14.There may not be a critical period in language acquisition; differences may be related to level of exposure and immersion (which is much greater at younger ages)
  • 15.Better thought of as an “optimal” or “sensitive” period
  • 16.Fact that some primates have primitive language skills supports idea of genetic component
  • 17.FOXP2 gene has been identified as important in the muscle skills necessary for speech.
• E. Nurture: Environment and Learning
• 1. Environmental influences on language acquisition
• 2. Children learn words that they hear.
• 3. Explains why children speak language of parents down to regional accent
• 4. Children are more likely to use a word if reinforced for using the word.
• 5. Children encouraged to ask questions tend to ask questions.
• 6. Learning theorists have easy time explaining the development of phonology and semantics, but harder time accounting for acquisition of syntactical rules.
• 7. Parents often reinforce sentences that are not grammatically correct.
• 8. Imitation cannot explain all of language acquisition as children say sentences that they have never heard.
• 9. Saying “repeat after me” to a child not a good idea for teaching syntax
• 10.Young children do imitate speech, but imitation and reinforcement alone cannot account for grammar acquisition.
• F. Nature and nurture working together
• 1. Combination of learning and nativist position
• 2. Both nature and nurture are critical.
• 3. Acquisition of language skills dependent on other capabilities (e.g., cognitive and social skills)
• 4. Piaget took an interactionist-like position on language acquisition but he did not emphasize the impact of social interactions with adults (something Vygotsky did acknowledge).
• 5. Infants learn turn-taking before they use words.
• 6. Child-directed speech—style of speech used by adults when talking with children
• 7. Simple, short sentences
• 8. Repetition and high-pitched voice (with exaggerated emphasis on words)
• 9. Infants pay attention to high-pitched sounds and varied intonation patterns.
• 10.Caregiver-child-directed speech is dynamic (constantly changing in response to the child’s utterances).
• 11.Ability to pick up grammar requires more than mere exposure; children must be actively involved in using language.
• 12.Dutch-speaking children watching German television did not acquire German words or grammar.
• 13.Child-directed speech simplifies child’s task of figuring out the rules of language.
• 14.Expansion—adult method for improving language by encouraging children to expand on their verbalizations
• 15.Effective adult conversation practices provide corrective feedback that is often subtle.
• 16.Language acquisition requires interaction between biologically prepared child with at least one conversational partner who ideally tailors his or her own speech to the child’s level of understanding.
• 17.Complete mastery best with early exposure to language
• 18.Language acquisition lays foundation for acquisition of writing, reading, and other skills.
• 19.When Does Language Develop?
• 20.Before the first words
• 21.Very young infants show preference for speech over nonspeech and for their native language.
• 22.Very young infants can distinguish phonemes.
• 23.Before they can speak, infants are sensitive to the pause between words
• 24.By seven-and-a-half months, infants demonstrate word segmentation—ability to detect a target word in a stream of speech
• 25.Sensitive to cues marking the beginning and end of words
• 26.Early sounds include cries, burps, and grunts.
• 27.Early vocalization exercises vocal chords.
• 28.Parents tend to respond to prelinguistic sounds as if infant attempting to genuinely communicate
• 29.Around 6–8 weeks, begin cooing—repeating vowel-like sound “aaah”
• 30.Around 3–4 months, begin babbling—consonant-vowel combination “baba”
• 31.Deaf children initially sound like hearing children, but without auditory experience/feedback, they eventually show delay in language development.
• 32.Advanced babblers restrict sounds to phonemes of language they are hearing and pick up intonation of language.
• 33.Infants attempt to master semantics—meaning of language
• 34.Understand words before they can produce them
• 35.Comprehension (reception) precedes production (expression).
• 36.Before speaking first word, seem to understand familiar words
• 37.Joint attention—infant and parent attend to vocalization and visual image at same time
• 38.Infants direct gaze toward object connecting words and their referents
• 39.Syntactic bootstrapping—use the syntax (placement of a word in a sentence) to determine the meaning of a word

II. The Infant (p. 278)

• A. Mastering Language
  • 1. By 7.5 months, infants demonstrate word segmentation
  • 2. Vocalization begins around 6–8 weeks of age.
  • 3. Cooing is repeating vowel-like sounds such as “oooooh” and “aaaaah.”
  • 4. Around 4–6 months, infants begin babbling.
  • 5. Up to 6 months, infants all over the world sound the same.
  • 6. Language comprehension is ahead of language production.
  • 7. Joint attention, or social eye gaze, is an important social cue.
  • 8. Children use syntactic bootstrapping when they use the syntax of a sentence to help determine the meaning of a word.
• B. The first words
  • 1. Holophrases—single words convey many things (single-word sentences)

My brother's first word was "light." We were in a stateroom on the steamer Del Norte sailing from Buenos Aires to New Orleans. He was around 7 months of age, I was 7 and babysitting while my parents were at dinner on the ship. My brother stood in his crib, pointed at the light on the ceiling and said "light" plain as day.

• 2. The way in which a holophrase is said and the context in which it is said determines its meaning.
• 3. Accompanying intonation and gesture pattern help convey meaning of holophrase.
• 4. At holophrase phase, infants have mastered basic functions like naming, questioning, requesting, and demanding.
• 5. One-year-olds mainly talk about familiar objects and actions.
• 6. Often involve common nouns about objects interacted with each day (e.g., mommy), objects the infant manipulates (e.g., ball), and words facilitating social interactions (e.g., bye-bye)
• 7. Vocabulary spurt—increase in vocabulary size around 18 months (e.g., 18 months = 30–50 words, 24 months = 300 words)
• 8. Overextension—use word too broadly (e.g., “dog” for all four-legged animals)
• 9. Underextension – use word too narrowly (e.g., “dog” for only the family pet and no other dogs)
• 10.Over- and underextension are examples of Piagetian assimilation and may be due to small vocabularies or not yet learning the name of an object.
• 11.Large individual variations in vocabulary size
• 12.Referential style—lots of nouns
• 13.Expressive style—lots of personal pronouns and social routines
• 14.Culture exerts influence on language.
• 15.Infants learning English produce more nouns.
• 16.Infants learning Korean produce more verbs.
• 17.Quality and quantity of speech interactions impact young children’s vocabulary size.
• C. Telegraphic speech
  • 1. Telegraphic speech—early combinations of two to four words into sentences that are like telegrams
  • 2. Normally seen around 18 to 24 months; combine two or three words in simple sentences
  • 3. Sentences contain critical content and omit frills.
  • 4. Follow systematic rules
  • 5. Functional grammar—emphasizes semantic relationship between words, the meaning expressed, and the function served by sentences
  • 6. Major advancement in complexity of sentences between ages 2 and 5 years
  • 7. Sentences are longer, more grammatically correct, but not without errors.
  • 8. Begin to infer morphological rules for forming plural and past-tense words
  • 9. Often engage in overregularization—applying rules to exceptions (e.g., says “foots” or “goed”)
  • 10.Transformational grammar—rules of syntax for transforming basic underlying thoughts into a variety of sentence forms
  • 11.Three stage rules for questioning:
    • a. Stage one: two- or three-word sentences with rising intonation
    • b. Stage two: use auxiliary or helping verbs
    • c. Stage three: move auxiliary verb ahead of subject
• D. Mastery Motivation
  • 1. Mastery motivation—intrinsic (internal) motivation to succeed
  • 2. Infants intrinsically motivated to master environment (i.e., are innately curious)
  • 3. Key influences on mastery motivation
  • 4. Goal may hold different levels of value for different infants.
  • 5. Mastery motivation higher when parents provide sensory stimulation designed to arouse child
  • 6. Mastery motivation higher in children with responsive parents (returning smiles, promptly responding to cries)
  • 7. Parents who stifle a child’s initiative may create a child less likely to take on new tasks.
  • 8. Early mastery motivation affects later achievement (i.e., parents can strengthen or weaken inborn motive to act).
• E. Early Education
  • 1. No need to provide special early childhood experiences
  • 2. Elkind says that too much early stimulation may be detrimental.
  • 3. Children simply need time to play and socialize as they choose.
  • 4. Elkind worries that when their lives are too orchestrated by parents, children may lose self-initiative and intrinsic motivation to learn.
  • 5. One study found that for each hour children spent watching “Baby Einstein” or “Brainy Baby” videos, they understood six to eight fewer words than babies who did not watch the videos (but no long-term impact was studied).
  • 6. Highly academic preschool programs raise academic achievement but decrease expectancies of success and pride in accomplishment.
  • 7. Best programs offer mix of play and academic skill building and are especially helpful to disadvantaged children.
  • 8. Abecedarian Project—full-time infancy educational program resulted in impressive cognitive gains during and immediately after the program
  • 9. Alternative programs that focus on educating parents about importance of early environmental experience benefit children (e.g., “born to learn”)
  • 10.Head Start is a federally funded program aimed at preparing disadvantaged children for school.
  • 11.Best programs build school-readiness skills but also allow time for play and socialization.

III. The Child (p. 285)

• A. Expanding Language Skills and Learning to Read
  • 1. By age 3, children have internalized standards of performance and experience pride and shame depending on their level of success.2. Some children are more achievement oriented and are higher achievers than others.
  • 3. Later language development
  • 4. School-age children show improved pronunciation, larger vocabulary, and can infer meaning.
  • 5. Average first-grader has vocabulary of 10,000 words and adds between 5 and 13 words a day through elementary school years.
  • 6. With help of formal operational thought, teens better able to understand and define abstract terms
  • 7. School-age children begin to be able to interpret passive sentences and show greater command of grammar.
  • 8. By middle childhood to adolescence, show increased metalinguistic awareness—increased knowledge of language itself
  • 9. Able to define abstract words
  • 10.Can better distinguish grammatically correct and grammatically incorrect sentences

From about the age of 2 till 13 I grew up in a bilingual fashion (English and Spanish) as we lived in Bogota, Buenos Aires, Havana, and Santiago de Chile. By the time I was 13 I often had to convince others that I was American, not Chilean. In high school I took Spanish courses but after graduating I rarely had the opportunity to speak Spanish. That all changed in 2015 when I was sent to Havana to find a Cuban college to partner with mine. That was the first of six trips to Cuba. That experience reawakened the Spanish that I had learned as a child. Driving home in Arkansas from one of our trips to Cuba we hit light rain, mist. My colleague, a professor who teaches Spanish asked me what the Spanish word for mist was. I instantly, and without conscious effort, replied, "llovisna." I was surprised. At the same time however, I find that I sometimes cannot dig up a Spanish word, even with effort.

• B. Achievement Motivation

• 1. Mastery orientation—drive to succeed despite challenge (i.e., persist in the face of failure, believe that increased efforts will pay off)
• 2. High achievers blame failure on external factors.
• 3. High achievers credit success to internal factors.
• 4. Low achievers credit success to external factors (e.g., ease task).
• 5. Low achievers blame failure on internal factors (e.g., lack of ability).
• 6. Low achievers more likely to exhibit learned helplessness—tendency to avoid challenges (give up when they fail and believe that they can do little to improve)
• C. Skilled and Unskilled Readers
  • 1. Skilled readers have a solid understanding of the alphabetic principle—the notion that letters must be associated with phonemes
  • 2. Skilled readers are faster information processers.
  • 3. Dyslexia is characterized by difficulties with oral language, written language, and with reading including poor phonological awareness and comprehension
• D. Schools and Formal Education
• E. Student Characteristics
  • 1. Before age 7
  • 2. Unrealistic optimism even after poor performance
  • 3. Even with poor performance, they continue to believe that they have the ability (older children tend to become more helpless with failure).
  • 4. Young children “protected” from damaging self-perception from failure because they do not yet view ability as a stable capacity
  • 5. Mastery (learning) goals—drive to learn new things to improve ability—dominates lower elementary grades’ thinking
  • 6. Older children (late elementary and middle school)
  • 7. Acquire performance goals—emphasis on proving ability rather than improving ability and seek to be judged as smart and not dumb
  • 8. Change is likely the result of cognitive advancement and accumulation of feedback in school.
  • 9. Focus on mastery/learning goals results in better school performance.
  • 10.Children high in mastery find the process of learning enjoyable (quenches their curiosity).
  • 11.Children high on performance goals are more in tune with the outcome (e.g., grade) and not the process of learning
  • 12.Children with performance goal focus show more anxiety and boredom.
  • 13.Different goals may involve different neurological activity in response to performance outcomes.
  • 14.Children who believe that ability is primarily a fixed entity tend to set up performance goals.
  • 15.Child’s overall intelligence contributes to academic success (but just a piece of the puzzle).
  • 16.Motivation and achievement are both higher when children value a subject.
  • 17.Parent contributions for fostering higher levels of achievement motivation
  • 18.Key to stress independence and self-reliance at early age
  • 19.Emphasize importance of doing well and meeting high standards
  • 20.Get involved in child’s education and emphasize practices that stimulate curiosity
  • 21.Provide cognitively stimulating home (e.g., reading material, intellectual discussions, attending cultural events, holding high educational expectations)
  • 22.Parents can undermine school performance with lack of involvement, nagging, lack of guidance, using bribes for good grades, and criticizing bad grades
• F. Teacher and School Characteristics
  • 1. Focus on external rewards (e.g., grades) may encourage the adoption of performance goals rather than mastery goals.
  • 2. Emphasis on competitive race for best grades a bad practice in that students come to view the grade and not learning as the goal
  • 3. Need to downplay competitive races for the best grades in class
  • 4. Telling kids that the goal of the task is to sharpen the mind might help in school
  • 5. Helplessness most likely with child who perceives he or she has low ability and is pursuing a performance goal
  • 6. Teachers should focus on nurturing intrinsic motivation in students.
  • 7. Slow learners could be taught to view mistakes as a sign that they should change their strategies to improve competence rather than it being seen as a lack of ability.
  • 8. Academic achievement highest when school encourages family involvement and regular parent–teacher interaction
• G. Achievement Motivation
  • 1. Those who have a fixed mindset tend to believe that “what they have” is fixed or static.
  • 2. Those who have a growth mindset believe that abilities and talent are not fixed but are malleable: They can be fostered through hard work and effort.
  • 3. An important characteristic of many people with a growth mindset is grit, that combination of passion and perseverance to achieve a goal even when faced with obstacles.
• H. Child Contributions
  • 1. Young children start out with a growth mindset.
  • 2. This view of ability encourages them to adopt mastery goals (also called learning goals).
  • 3. By late elementary and middle school, more children have a fixed mindset and adopt performance goals in school.
  • 4. They aim to prove their ability rather than to improve it and seek to be judged smart rather than dumb.
• I. Parent Contributions
  • 1. Stress and reinforce the process of learning
  • 2. Wigfield and Eccless (2015) concluded that three aspects of parenting style can influence children’s motivations:
  • a.Providing an appropriate balance of structure for daily activities, without being controlling, overly prescriptive, or holding unrealistic expectations;
  • b.Offering consistent and supportive responses to children’s activities and behaviors;
  • c.Presenting opportunities for children to observe healthy responses to life’s challenges from the adults in their lives.
• J. School Contributions
  • 1. Many schools focus on external rewards.
  • 2. Encouraging students to adopt learning or mastery goals would aid academic performance.

IV. The Adolescent (p. 294)

• A. Adolescents
  • 1. Teens (especially in grades 6–9) tend to become less dedicated to academics.
  • 2. Student risk factors include minority group status, low maternal education and mental health, stressful life events, family size, and father absence.
  • 3. Students better at analyzing causes of events tend to view strengths and weaknesses more realistically and may lose some academic self-esteem.
  • 4. Family characteristics impact achievement.
  • 5. Poorer performance in minority and single-parent families and when mom is less educated or has a mental disorder.
  • 6. Students who believe that parents are involved in their schooling tend to be more academically motivated.
  • 7. Increasing peer-group awareness that leads to a motivation to not look dumb and to make parents proud
  • 8. Peer pressures may undermine achievement motivation.
  • 9. Especially negative impact on academics in lower-income minority students
  • 10.Thought of by peers as “acting white”
  • 11.Culture may not value academics.
  • 12.Parental valuing of academics may cancel negative peer impact.
  • 13.Minority students with supportive peers show strengthened academic achievement.
  • 14.A strong ethnic identity can help, but cannot overcome the negative effects of discrimination experienced by many minority students.
  • 15.Poor person–environment fit may contribute to decline in motivation.
  • 16.Reaching puberty may result in drop in self-esteem.
  • 17.Changes in grade level of transition into middle school do not significantly impact achievement.
  • 18.Most negative impact in middle-school transition if child’s developmental needs do not match well with school environment (e.g., look for autonomy while school demands less autonomy)
  • 19.Giving students a sense of ownership and some degree of control may improve interest and motivation.
  • 20.Level of support by teachers during middle-school transition is critical (i.e., more supportive teachers, more positive student outlook on learning).
  • 21.Educators can keep adolescents engaged by providing a better fit between developmental needs and interests of adolescents.
  • 22.Parents can help by remaining supportive and involved in their child’s education.
• B. Cross-Cultural Differences
  • 1. Skills necessary for an industrialized society
  • 2. Students in the United States score above average (but not at top level) on tests of math and science ability.
  • 3. Poorer cross-cultural showing of U.S. students mainly due to cultural differences in attitudes concerning education and academics (especially when compared to students in Asian nations)
  • 4. Students in Asian nations spend more time in school and engaging in on-task behavior
  • 5. Teachers in Asian nations have different approaches to education.
  • 6. Engage in more discourse about correct answers
  • 7. Students in Asian nations (especially Japan) receive more homework.
  • 8. Parents in Asian nations show strong commitment to education.
  • 9. Parents in Asian nations tend to be less satisfied with how their children are doing when compared with American parents.
  • 10.Peers in Asian nations tend to have higher value for achievement and have high standards concerning performance levels.
  • 11.Students, parents, and teachers in Asian nations have strong belief that hard work will pay off.
  • 12.Key cross-cultural finding is that the most effective education occurs when teachers, parents, and students all make education a top priority.
• C. Exploring Careers
  • 1. Many American and Canadian children work outside of school; fewer in other industrialized nations
  • 2. Working students (at least 20 hours per week) experience positive and negative effects.
  • 3. Working students gain knowledge of work, consumer issues, and financial management.
  • 4. Working students have lower GPAs.
  • 5. Working students are more disengaged from school (e.g., skip class).
  • 6. Greater risk for psychological distress in working students
  • 7. Disenchanted students more disenchanted when working more hours
  • 8. Working associated with academic struggles, poorer academic performance
  • 9. Some studies have found significantly fewer negative impacts of employment.
  • 10.Nature of job important in determining impact of work
  • 11.Working routine and repetitive jobs that do not call on academic skills tend to not build character or teach new skills.
  • 12.Jobs that provide opportunity for advancement and teach useful skills may be of benefit (e.g., increase mastery motivation).
  • 13.Pathways to Adulthood
  • 14.Educational pathways somewhat constrained by intelligence and aptitude levels
  • 15.Dropping out of high school can negatively impact career path.
  • 16.Making the most of your abilities is critical.
  • 17.Many factors impact outcome (e.g., quality of school, parental encouragement, extent to which peers value school).
  • 18.Students with good grades are more likely to complete high school, and number of graduates varies by ethnicity (e.g., 92% of European Americans, 86% of African Americans, 85% of Asian Americans, 70% of Hispanics).
  • 19.Rates for completing four-year college degree also vary by culture (e.g., 30% of European American, 17% of African Americans, 49% of Asian Americans, 11% of Hispanics).

V. The Adult (p. 300)

• A. Continuing Education
  • 1. Every year, somewhere between 25% and 35% of adults pursue some sort of formal education.
  • 2. Reasons for continuing education can be summarized in two general categories: internal and external.
  • 3. There are advantages and disadvantages to continuing education in adulthood.
• B. Careers and Vocation
  • 1. A true vocation is something we feel we must do.
  • 2. After their relatively unsettled 20s and decision-making 30s, adults often reach their career stride in their 40s.
  • 3. Gender influences vocational choice and development.
  • 4. There is a bidirectional relationship between personality and educational opportunities and career choices.
• C. Job Loss and Unemployment
  • 1. Job loss and unemployment can threaten adults’ identities, disrupt their goals, and lower their self-esteem.
  • 2. During COVID-19 more women than men lost their jobs.
  • 3. Unemployment affects the entire family.
• D. The Aging Worker
  • 1. There may be some decline in motivation levels in adulthood.
  • 2. This is not a universal occurrence.
  • 3. Job performance in older adulthood is similar to younger workers.
  • 4. Older workers have on-the-job expertise related to younger workers.
  • 5. Older workers can use selective optimization with compensation (SOC).
• E. Retirement
  • 1. Retirement age keeps increasing.
  • 2. Retirement is not a single event.
  • 3. After retirement, workers need to adjust to the loss of their work role and develop a satisfying and meaningful lifestyle after retirement.
  • 4. Life course perspective: life events (e.g., retirement) need to be considered within the context of all the other life events experiences by a person
  • 5. Good long-term adjustment after retirement is likely among those who:
    • a.Retire voluntarily rather than involuntarily and feel in control of their retirement decision
    • b.Enjoy good physical and mental health
    • c.Have positive personality traits such as agreeableness and emotional stability
    • d.Have the financial resources to live comfortably
    • e.Are married or otherwise have strong social support

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